This book is the first attempt to quantify France’s contribution to the war. It profiles 25 French outfitters and merchants who provided much-needed military supplies to the Americans. It covers 56 engagements fought in New France (Canada), 32 battles on land in the American colonies and more than 700 actions fought at sea.
France sent at least 61 warships and more than 100 transports with 31,497 seamen and 12,680 soldiers to America. Of the total 44,177 men, more than 5040 perished to help procure American independence. France also incurred casualties in 24 engagements on land in the West Indies and 21 in the East Indies. She lost 972 vessels captured or sunk but captured or sank 1081 British vessels. The book also covers 123 naval actions which resulted in no captures. These include fleet actions which incurred much destruction on both sides, inconclusive actions, and those in which one party ceased action and sailed away.
America's First Ally: France in the Revolutionary War
$5.00 Shipping and Handling
Introduction v
1. Covert Aid 1
2. Outfitters and Suppliers 15
3. Canada: The Fourteenth Colony 37
4. Naval Assistance 65
5. Military Aid 179
Epilogue 233
Appendix 237
Abbreviations 242
Endnotes 245
Bibliography 297
Index 300Active, 103, 142, 159
Active, HM Frigate, 88, 96
Active, letter of marque, 78, 87, 98, 119
Aigle, French frigate, 156, 169, 170–172
Alarm, HM Frigate, 88, 104, 138
Alexander, HMS, 121, 136
Alexander, letter of marque, 90, 95, 145, 155, 148
Alfred, 18, 74–77
Allen, Ethan, 39–42
Alliance, Continental frigate, 20, 29,
30–32, 144
Alliance, French privateer cutter, 112, 147
Alliance, snow, 133
Amazone French frigate, 108, 126, 136, 167
Amélie, 5, 6, 9, 13, 17
Amphion, HM Frigate, 158, 161, 163, 176–178
Amphitrite, HM Frigate, 149, 155
Amphitrite, 5, 6, 7, 13, 16, 28, 137
Amphitrite, French frigate, 153
Amphytrite, 17
Apollo, HM Frigate, 78, 86, 99, 194
Arbuthnot, Marius Admiral, 132, 139, 140–141
Ardent HMS, 106, 130, 139, 140
Ariel, HM Frigate, 80– 82, 95, 108, 201
Arnold, Benedict, 39, 40–41, 44–48, 50, 51, 52, 54,
137, 138, 140, 154, 200
Astrée, French frigate, 61, 62, 155, 152
Aurora HMS, 144, 145, 147
Aurora, French, 21, 106
Bancroft, Edward, 2, 5
Barrancas Coloradas, 211–213
Barren Hill, 186–188
Barrington, Samuel, 108, 164–166
Basmarein & Raimbaux, 19, 27–8
bayonet, 23, 191, 199, 202, 205, 215, 218, 222
Beaumarchais, Pierre-Augustin Caron de, 2–6, 9–12,
15, 18, 20, 21, 23, 28, 35, 128
Belle Poule frigate, 82, 94–96, 142
Belle Poule, HMS, 141
Bellona, London privateer, 85, 94, 97, 100
Berwick, HMS, 95, 141–142
Besse, Martial, 201, 205
Bienfaisant, HMS, 128, 130, 132, 133
Bingham, William, 8, 11
Black Prince, French privateer, 30, 32,, 108–110,
118, 120
Black Princess, French privateer brig, 32, 118, 120,
124, 128, 145, 147, 156, 157
Bomb/bombs, 5, 7, 9, 11, 41, 43, 86, 160, 227
Bondfield, John, 20, 29, 32
Bonhomme Richard, 17, 18, 19, 32, 112, 113, 114,
115
Bonvouloir, Julien Alexandre Archard de, 1, 2, 22
Brandywine, 186
Brétigny, Charles François Sévelinges, Marquis de, 17,
198, 206
Britannia, HMS, 108, 164
Brown, John, 22–23
Burgoyne, John, 54, 229–230
Butler, Richard, 214, 215
Cahokia, 193, 195, 206, 207, 208, 209
Callonne, privateer (formerly the Tartar), 141
Camilla, HM frigate, 69, 107, 183
cannonballs, 5, 9, 11, 40, 41, 46, 99, 146, 148, 170,
198
cannons, 4, 5, 7, 10, 11, 12, 16, 18, 20, 24, 27, 33,
34, 40, 42, 45, 48, 51, 85, 93, 102, 104, 116,
127, 143, 160, 165, 181, 185, 188, 198, 201,
203, 213, 227
Carabasse, Mr., 9, 10, 12, 13
Carleton, Guy, 40, 42–46, 49, 232
Carysfort, HMS, 79, 80, 157
Castries, Vicomte de, 168, 205
Centurion, HMS, 117, 158, 163, 176
Cerberus, HM Frigate, 67, 92, 144, 156, 175, 193
César, French ship, 86, 90, 194
Chadd’s Ford, 195, 181
Charlestown, HM frigate, 61, 62, 147, 149
Charlotte, London sloop, 110, 145
Charon, frigate, 130, 137, 227
Chaumont, Jacques-Donatien Le Ray de, 16, 18–20,
23, 76
Chesapeake Bay, 18, 71, 94, 106, 126, 137, 140,
154, 155, 158, 163, 166, 168, 195, 223
Choisy, Claude Gabriel, Marquis de, 226, 231
Christophe, Henri, 6, 201, 205
Clark, George Rogers, 192, 195–197, 207, 208, 210
Clinton, Henry, 141, 154, 184, 186, 188, 189, 198,
190, 191, 200, 204, 214, 216, 223, 225, 232
coffee, 61, 62, 71, 72, 74, 80, 85, 89, 91, 97, 101,
102, 103, 115, 117, 118, 120, 121, 126, 128,
132, 133, 135, 138, 142, 145, 163, 174, 177
Commandant, French privateer, 99, 111
Committee of Secret Correspondence, 2, 5, 22
Comte d’Argout, 8, 9, 73
Comte d’Estaing, 17, 34
Comte de Vergennes, ship, 6, 9, 17, 32, 76
Comtesse Besançois (Comtesse de Buzançois), privateer,
134, 135
Comtesse d’Artois, privateer, 99, 133
Concorde, frigate, 6, 99, 100, 106
Conyngham, Gustavus, 71, 72 see also Cunningham
cordage, 10, 17, 72, 78, 79, 80, 81, 93, 128, 135,
160, 164, 176, 178
Cornic, Veuve Mathurin & fils, 29
Cornwallis, Charles, 154, 162, 181, 182, 195, 207,
214–216, 223, 224, 228, 229
Cossoul, Mr., 33
Costentin, Berubé de, 31
Cottin fils & Jauge, 33
cotton, 62, 74, 92, 94, 100, 101, 102, 103, 115, 117,
121, 123, 135, 138, 141, 145, 149, 163, 174
Countess of Scarborough, 30, 113, 115
Courageux, frigate, 87, 121, 135, 136
Cumberland, Duke of, 103
Cunningham, Captain, 127 see also Conyngham
Cyclops, HM Frigate, 176–178
d’Estaing, Admiral Jean Baptiste Charles Henri
Hector, 23, 82, 83, 85, 86, 96, 108, 116, 137,
188, 189, 195, 193, 194, 200–202, 205
Dale, Richard, 113, 114
Danae, 103, 166
Darby, George, 141,142, 153
Dauphin, French privateer, 17, 173, 174
Dauphin Royal, French ship, 167, 175
de Barras, Louis, Comte, 61, 153–155, 195, 221
de Grasse François Joseph Paul Comte, 142, 151,
153–155, 158, 159, 161, 207
de Guines Adrien-Louis de Bonnières, duc, 22
de La Balme, Auguste La Mottin, 195, 207
de la Motte Picquet (Count Toussaint–Guillaume
Picquet de la Motte), 96, 121, 145, 149, 150
De Lancey, James, 217, 219, 220
De Peyster, Arent Schuyler, 208
de Ternay, Charles–Henri–Louis d’Arsac, chevalier,
126, 132, 195
Deane, Silas, 2–5, 12, 13, 16, 18, 19, 22, 23, 24, 26,
27, 35
Delap, Jean–Hans, 32
Desegray, Beaugeard fils & Cie, 17, 20, 31
Destouches, Charles René Dominique Sochet,
139–140
Deux Ponts, Guillaume de, Comte de Forbach, 228
Dickinson, John, 2
Dobbs Ferry, 88, 217, 219
Duc de Chartres, 67, 68, 165, 168
Dumas, Mathieu, 230
Dundas, Thomas, 225, 226
Dunmore, brig, 80, 107
Duportaïl, Louis le Bègue de Presle, 6, 195
Eagle, brig, 92, 135
Eagle, British privateer, 131, 137
Eagle, Guernsey privateer, 146
Eagle, privateer, 117
Eddy, Jonathan, 55–58
Elphinstone, George Keith, viscount Keith, 69, 80
Emmerich, Andreas, 217–218
Erskine, William, 188
Ewald, Johann von, 186, 214, 215, 226, 227
Experiment, HMS, 81, 102, 103, 115,116, 168, 201
Fame, Dublin privateer, 97, 107, 118, 136, 138, 164
Farmers General see Fermiers-Généraux
Ferguson, Patrick, 182
Fermiers-Généraux (Farmers-General), 4, 20, 31
Fier Roderigue, 6, 11, 12, 16–18, 128
Fleury & Demadières, 33
Fleury, François Louis Teissedre de, 195, 200
Flora, HMS, 69, 129, 146, 194
Fontanges, François de, 6, 201
forage, 183, 224, 225, 226
Fortune, 30, 102, 126
Foudroyant, HM Frigate, 70, 164, 168
Fouquet, Nicolas, 34
Fox, HM Frigate, 86, 87, 89, 98
Franklin, Benjamin, 2, 10, 16, 22, 24, 26, 29, 30, 32,
33, 66, 68, 69, 112, 157
Franklin, French ship, 137
Franklin, French snow, 18, 19, 26, 30, 87, 137
Fraser, Simon, 53
Fusiliers’ Redoubt, 223, 224, 225, 227
Gálvez, Bernardo de, 192, 210–212
Garth, George, 115, 201
Gaspée, brig, 46, 50
Gates, Horatio, 189, 230
America's First Ally.indd 301 5/8/2019 6:26:17 PM
302 • america’s first ally
Germain, Lord George, 123
Gillon, Commodore Alexander, 157–158
Gloire, French frigate 169–172
Gourlade & Moylan, 31–32
Gourlade, Bérard frères, & Montplaisir, 74–76
Grand, Rodolphe-Ferdinand, 19
Grant, James, 186
Graves, Thomas, 154, 155, 229
Greene, Nathanael, 181, 191, 231
Grey, Charles, 181, 186
Grimouard, Chevalier de, 135–136
Gruel, Jean Jacques Barthélémy, 25, 26
Guichen, Luc Urbain de Bouexic, the Comte de, 133,
157, 159
gunpowder, 7, 8, 11, 15, 17, 18, 21, 23, 24, 34, 35,
66, 70, 83, 98, 105, 122, 144, 147, 163, 165,
174, 196, 233 see also powder
Hamilton, Alexander, 191, 228
Hamilton, Henry, 196–197, 208
Hand, Elijah, 183, 184
Hardy, Charles, 105, 106, 108
Harrison, Benjamin, 2
Hawke, privateer, 79, 93, 103, 104
Hays, Mary Ludwig, 190
Henry, Patrick, 192, 195
Hermione, French frigate, 61, 62, 107, 116,124, 125,
134, 138–140, 143, 148, 152, 158, 165, 173
Heureux, 5, 6, 10, 11
Hippopotame, 6, 11, 16
Hispaniola, 9, 10, 67, 72, 80, 84, 100, 118, 135, 144
Holker, Jean, 17, 19, 20, 28
Hood, Samuel 1st Viscount, 151, 154, 155, 164
Howe, Robert, 89, 219
Howe, William, 183, 195, 184
Huddy, Joshua, 232
Indians, 56, 209 see also Native Americans
indigo, 7, 62, 70, 71, 72, 73, 77, 80, 81, 85, 87, 89,
91, 92, 94, 100, 101, 102, 103, 107, 118, 121,
123, 126, 128, 132, 133, 138, 141, 145, 173,
174
Irvine, William, 54
Jacques Gruel & Co., 25
Jauge, Mr., 19
Jay, John, 2, 10, 22
Jean Louis Poncet & Son, 25
John Diot & Co., 32
Johnstone, George, 131, 142, 143, 157, 163
Jones, John Paul, 19, 112
Kaskaskia, 193, 196, 208
Kempenfelt, Richard, 58, 159
Keppel, Augustus, 84, 85, 89, 91, 93
Keragou de Leomaria, Comte de, 176
Kingsbridge, 216, 217, 218, 220
Knox, Henry, 40, 224
Knyphausen, Wilhelm von, 181, 182, 190, 195, 189
Lafayette, Marie Jean Paul Joseph du Motier Marquis
de, 6, 27, 85, 154, 194, 182, 185, 186, 187, 188,
189, 190, 193, 194, 207, 214, 215, 216, 223
Landais, Captain Pierre, 17, 29, 31, 32, 112
Languedoc, 86, 194
Latouche Tréville, Louis-René Madelaine Le Vassor,
comte de, 61, 104, 107, 116, 124, 125, 137, 140,
143, 148, 158, 169–173
Lauzun, Armand Louis de Gontaut-Biron, Duc de,
217, 219, 220, 226
Lavaysse, or La Vaysse, 31–32
Lee, Arthur, 4, 26
Lee, Charles, 189–191
Leonard Jarvis and Russell, 33
letter of marque, 33, 62, 65, 66, 68, 72, 80, 81, 82,
84, 87, 88, 91, 92, 93, 95, 98, 101, 103, 104,
107, 108, 109, 110, 111, 118, 119, 120, 127,
128, 133, 135, 138, 141, 144, 148, 165, 169,
173 see also privateer
Licorne, HMS, 82, 130, 147, 152
Ligoudez, Comte de, 92
Lincoln, Benjamin, 200, 202, 204, 216–219, 223,
230
Lloyd Neck, 221, 222
logwood, 72, 81
London, HMS, 119, 139, 140
Louis XVI, 1, 2, 9, 12, 35, 82, 85, 193, 232, 233
Lupton, George, 76 see also Van Zandt, James
mahogany, 72, 81
Maidstone, HM Frigate, 68, 81, 94
Maitland, John, 202
Manhattan, 216, 217
Marisquelles, Marie Louis Amand Ansart de, 34
Martin, Joseph Plumb, 191, 228
Mathew, Edward, 181, 216
Maurepas, Comte de, 33, 76
Mawhood, Charles, 183, 184
Maxwell, William, 195, 181
McGirth, Daniel, 202
McIntosh, Lachlan, 205
McLane, Allen, 185–187
McPherson, William, 214, 215
Mercer, John Francis, 226
Milford, HM Frigate, 59, 83, 88, 90, 100, 111, 124
Minerve, French frigate, 105, 135, 136, 160
Mohawks, 41, 51, 52 see also Native Americans,
Indians
molasses, 70, 71, 80, 81, 82, 93, 97, 140, 151
Montagu, John, 4th Earl of Sandwich, First Lord of
the Admiralty, 111
Montaudouin Frères, 20
Montieu, Jean Joseph Carrier (Carié) de, 15–20
Morgan, Daniel, 44, 48, 189
Morris, Robert, 2, 19, 26, 29
Morris, Thomas, 26, 76
mortars, 5, 8, 10, 17, 39, 40, 43, 47, 71, 101, 104,
201, 204, 213, 227
Moultrie, William, 198
Moylan, James, 30, 32
Moylan, Stephen, 224
Muirson, Heathcote, 221, 222
Murfree, Hardy, 199
Nash, Francis, 181
Native Americans, 41, 43, 45, 50, 51, 52, 54, 55,
56, 60, 185, 194, 195, 211, 213 see also Indians,
Mohawks
Nelson, Thomas, Jr., 223, 224
Nesbit, William, 54
Nicholson, Samuel, 75
Noailles, Louis Marc Antoine Vicomte de, 200, 203
Nonsuch, HMS, 128, 145
O’Hara, Charles, 230, 231
O’Neil, Arturo, 212
Pallas, HMS, 17, 82, 94, 102, 112, 162
Parr, John, 60
Peace Treaty of Paris, 232
Pegasus, HM Frigate, 133, 153, 155
Pelletier–Dudoyer, Jean, 15–17, 28
Penet, 76
Penet, d’Acosta & Compagnie, 26
Perouse, Comte de La, 108, 118
Phillips, William, 140
Pickering, Thomas, 95
Pigot, Robert, 85, 170, 193, 194
piracy, 65–66, 84
pistol, 92, 94, 119, 127, 130, 133, 135, 153, 167,
177, 198, 224
Pliarne, Penet & Cie, 22–24,26
Poor, Enoch, 185
Poreau, Mackenzie et Cie., 33
Potter, James, 186
powder, 2, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, 15, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 34,
35, 39, 43, 54, 71, 88, 114, 147, 148, 156, 160,
172, 176, 177, 197, 224 see also gunpowder
Powell, Henry Watson, 208
Prevost, Augustine, 115, 201, 203, 204
privateers, 6, 12, 27, 28, 32, 47, 58, 60, 62, 65, 66,
67, 72, 80, 84, 86, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97,
98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107,
109, 110, 112, 118, 120, 121, 122, 124, 125,
126, 127, 128, 129, 130, 131, 132, 134, 136,
138, 141, 142, 145, 149, 150, 151, 155, 156,
157, 162, 163, 164, 172, 173, 193 see also letter
of marque
Puchelberg & Cie, 29, 30, 32
Pulaski, Casimir, 200, 202, 203, 205
Pyne (or Payne), James, 198
Ranger, privateer, 91, 112, 137
Reculès de Basmarein & Raimbaux, 26
rice, 7, 70, 71, 77, 79, 80, 81, 91, 92, 103, 173
Richmond, HM Frigate, 78, 79, 102, 158
Rigaud, André, 201
Rochambeau, Jean Baptiste Donatien de Vimeur
Comte de, 154, 195, 207, 216, 224, 230
Roderigue Hortalez & Cie., 3, 4, 5, 6, 12, 16, 17, 28
Rodney, Sir George Brydges, 119, 145, 150, 156, 158
Romney, HMS, 71, 91, 127, 134, 136, 142, 143
rum, 41, 61, 62, 66, 70, 71, 72, 74, 80, 85, 97, 120,
151, 160, 166, 173, 176, 177, 233
Sabatier Fils & Després (or Desprez), 19–20
Sagittair, French man-of-war, 115, 167
sailcloth, 10, 121, 159, 160
salt, 60, 61, 62, 69, 71, 72, 73, 74, 77, 79, 80, 81,
82, 83, 91, 93, 97, 107, 122, 125, 127, 173, 176,
183, 203
saltpeter, 11, 18, 20, 21, 23, 24, 26, 31, 34
Samuel Petrie Pothonnier & Cie., 32
Santa Rosa Island, 211–212
Sartine, Antoine Raymond Jean Gualbert Gabriel de,
Comte d’Alby, 18, 19, 28, 75–77
Sartine, French privateer ship-of-war, 132, 153
Savage, Samuel Phillips, 25
Scammel, Alexander, 224
Schuyler, Philip, 41, 44
Schweighauser, Jean Daniel, 21, 28–30, 32
Seine, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 12, 13
Shaw, Jr., Nathaniel, 11
Sheldon, Elisha, 88, 217
Simcoe, John Graves, 183, 184, 187, 190, 214, 215,
226
Sinclair, Patrick, 206
slave trade, 66
slaves, 73, 74, 79, 147, 202, 203
Solebay, HMS, 79, 106, 134, 135, 151, 152
Sphinx, 108, 142, 143, 201
spies, 5, 58, 185, 186, 205
America's First Ally.indd 303 5/8/2019 6:26:17 PM
304 • america’s first ally
Spy, armed ship, 99
stands of arms, 7, 8, 18, 21, 22, 23, 27, 71, 203,
219
Stevens, Adam, 181
Stewart, John, 199, 200
Stormont, David Murray, 2nd Earl of Mansfield,
known as Lord Stormont, 5, 18, 32, 76, 77
Suffren, Pierre André de Suffren de Saint Tropez,
Bailli de, 142
sugar, 61, 62, 66, 70–72, 74, 80, 85, 89, 91–94, 97,
100–103, 115, 117, 120, 121, 123, 126, 128,
132, 133, 135, 140–143, 145, 149, 151, 152,
163, 166, 173, 174, 177, 193, 233
Sullivan, John, 34, 85, 181, 193
Suzannet, Chevalier de, 131
sword, 27, 39, 57, 88, 94, 129, 208, 222, 224, 230
Sybil, French frigate, 163, 164, 166, 176
Tallmadge, Benjamin, 221, 222
Tarleton, Banastre, 214, 225, 226, 231
Tilly, Legordeur de, 99, 100, 137–139
tobacco, 4, 12, 18, 34, 61, 62, 68, 72, 73, 78, 79, 80,
81, 82, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 97, 98, 103, 106,
107, 128, 131, 135, 145, 166, 173, 214, 216
Treaty of Alliance, 12, 194
Treaty of Amity and Commerce, 12, 67, 193
Treaty of Fontainebleau, 192
Treaty of Paris 1763, 1
Tronson du Coudray, Philippe Charles Jean Baptiste,
16, 34, 195
Tucker, Samuel, 78
Turgot, Anne Robert Jacques Baron de l’Aulne, 2
uniforms, 18, 19, 20, 23, 27, 33, 55, 160, 164, 189,
230
Valentine Hill, 217, 218
Valley Forge, 11, 185, 187, 188, 189, 191
Vallière, Jean-Florent de, 16
Van Zandt, James, alias George Lupton, 17, 31, 76
Varnum, James Mitchell, 185
Vaudreuil, Comte de, 168, 176
Vergennes, Charles Gravier, the Comte de, 2, 5, 9,
16, 19, 21, 22, 66, 73, 193, 231, 232
Verplanck Point, 199, 200
Vigo, Francis (Joseph Maria Francesco Vigo), 196
Villeneuve Cillard, 95, 137, 148
Vioménil, Baron de, 172
von Lossburg, Friedrich Wilhelm, 218
von Steuben, Friedrich Wilhelm Ludolf Gerhard
Augustin Baron, 11, 191, 223
von Wurmb, Ludwig Johann Adolph, 218
Warner, Seth, 43, 44
Warren, James, 25
Washington, George, 40, 85, 154, 181–183,
185–191, 193, 195, 198, 199, 200, 207,
217–220, 223, 224, 227, 229–232
Waterbury, David, 217
Watson & Cossoul, 33
Wayne, Anthony 181, 189, 195, 199, 214
Weedon, George, 225
Wentworth, Paul, 17
Weymouth, Lord, 18, 73
White Plains, 219
White, John, 203
Wickes, Lambert, 68, 69
Williams Jonathan, Jr., 17, 19, 20, 28–31, 33
Williams, Jonathan, 21, 75, 76, 78
Williamsburg, 214–216, 224
Willing, James, 192
Wooster, David, 49
